Where do the molecular targets come from?
Cancer is caused by abnormal changes in a person’s genes that can cause cancer cells to multiply and grow. These gene abnormalities are known as molecular targets. They may be acquired or inherited.
Learn more about:
- What are genes?
- Acquired gene changes
- Inherited faulty genes
- Are Medicare rebates available for genetic tests?
Listen to a podcast on New Treatments – Immunotherapy and Targeted Therapy
What are genes?
Genes are made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). They are found in every cell of the body and are inherited from both parents. Each human cell has about 20,000 genes. Genes tell the cell what to do, and when to grow and divide. Cells use this information to make proteins that carry out specific functions in the body.
Acquired gene changes
Most cancers are not caused by inherited genetic changes but by mistakes that build up over time in the body’s cells (known as acquired changes). These gene faults are in the structure of the cancerous cell, not in normal cells.
Researchers have found several gene abnormalities that play a key role in a number of cancers. For example:
- epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations in lung cancer
- BRAF mutations in melanoma, bowel and thyroid cancers
- anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) mutations in lung cancer and neuroblastoma
- KRAS mutations in bowel cancer
- NRAS mutations in melanoma, leukaemia and bowel cancer
- high levels of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) in breast and stomach cancers
- KIT mutations in gastrointestinal stromal tumours and melanoma.
To find out if the cancer contains a change in a gene or related protein that may respond to a particular targeted therapy drug, your doctor will take a tissue sample from the cancer and send it to a laboratory for molecular testing. It may take from a few days to a few weeks before you receive the results.
Inherited faulty genes
Some genetic abnormalities are linked to a faulty gene (mutation) we inherit from our parents. Inherited faulty genes may increase a person’s risk of developing cancer. However, not all people who inherit a faulty gene develop cancer.
About 5% of cancers are caused by an inherited faulty gene. Inherited genetic conditions associated with cancer continue to be discovered, for example:
- an inherited mutation in one of the BRCA genes is linked to breast, ovarian and prostate cancers
- Lynch syndrome increases the risk of developing bowel, uterine, ovarian and stomach cancers
- Li-Fraumeni syndrome increases the risk of developing breast, primary bone and adrenal cancers
- Cowden syndrome increases the risk of developing breast, thyroid and uterine cancers
- familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is a risk factor for bowel, stomach and thyroid
If your doctor suspects that the cancer is linked to an inherited gene fault, they will refer you to a family cancer service or genetic counsellor. A pathologist can run special tests on a blood or tissue sample to look for possible inherited gene changes. This is known as a genetic test.
Knowing whether you have a particular faulty gene may help determine suitable treatment options. Doctors may be able to recommend a targeted therapy drug that has been shown to work on cancers caused by that faulty gene.
If you are concerned about your family risk factors, talk to your doctor about having regular check-ups or ask for a referral to a family cancer clinic. To find out more, call Cancer Council 13 11 20.
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Medicare rebates are available for genetic tests for some people with specific cancers. You may need to meet certain eligibility requirements to have a Medicare-funded test. For more information about genetic testing, talk to your specialist or family cancer clinic, or call 13 11 20. Visit genetics.edu.au to find a family cancer clinic near you. |
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To download an EPUB file to your Kobo from a Windows computer:
- download and save the EPUB directly onto your desktop.
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- select “Open folder to view files” to view the contents of your Kobo.
- navigate to where you have stored your EPUB file in “Finder”, in documents or downloads, and drag and drop it into the Kobo window. You can now disconnect your Kobo to read the eBook.
To download an EPUB to your Kobo from a Mac:
- download and save the EPUB directly onto your desktop.
- connect your Kobo to your computer using the USB cable and tap “Connect” on your eReader.
- open your “Finder” application.
- select “Kobo eReader” from the listed devices to view the contents of your Kobo.
- navigate to where you have stored your EPUB file in “Finder”, probably in documents or downloads, and drag and drop it into the Kobo window. You can now disconnect your Kobo to read the eBook.
Turn on your Kobo and your EPUB will be located in “eBooks”, while a PDF will be located in “Documents”.
Need more information? Visit: http://www.kobo.com/help/koboaura/response/?id=3784&type=3
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To download an EPUB file on your Sony Reader™:
- ensure you have already installed the Reader™ Library for PC/Mac software
- select the eBook you want from our website and click the link to download it.
- connect the Reader™ to your computer.
- open the Reader™ Library software and click “Library” in the left-hand pane and select the eBook to view it.
Need more help? Visit: https://au.readerstore.sony.com/apps_and_devices/
Amazon Kindle 2nd Generation devices
EPUB files can’t be read on the Amazon Kindle™. However, like most eReaders, Kindle™ 2nd Generation devices are able to display PDFs. We recommend that you download the PDF version of this booklet if you would like to read it on a Kindle™.
To transfer a PDF to your Kindle™ via USB cable from your computer or Mac:
- download the PDF directly onto your computer.
- connect the USB cable to your computer’s USB port, and the micro USB end of the cable to your Kindle™. Note: the Kindle™ won’t be available as a reading device while it is connected to your computer until it has been disconnected.
- open the Kindle™ drive and several folders will appear inside. The “Documents” folder is where you will need to copy or drag the PDF to.
- safely eject your Kindle™ from your computer and unplug the USB cable. Your content will appear on the Home Screen.
Kindle also provides a Kindle Personal Documents Service that allows users to send documents as an attachment directly to your eReader. For more information on this service, visit http://www.amazon.com/gp/help/customer/display.html/ref=help_search_1-1?ie=UTF8&nodeId=200767340&qid=1395967989&sr=1-1
For more information on accessing a PDF on your Kindle™, visit www.amazon.com/manageyourkindle, log in to your account and click on Personal Document Settings.
Need more help? Visit https://www.amazon.com/gp/help/customer/display.html?nodeId=200375630
Android and PC
You can also download and open eBooks on Android devices and PCs with appropriate apps or software installed. Suitable eReader apps for Android include Google Play Books, FBReader and Moon+ Reader. Suitable software for PCs include Calibre and Adobe Digital Editions.
This information was last reviewed in June 2018
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